Computer Technology

A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and provides output in a useful format.
While a computer can, in theory, be made out of almost anything (see misconceptions section), and mechanical examples of computers have existed through much of recorded human history, the first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
Computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); this is an unintuitive and pedagogical example that a computer can be made out of almost anything. More realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.
Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computing, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Some of these can easily tackle problems that modern computers cannot (such as how quantum computers can break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring).

Computer architecture paradigms

Some different paradigms of how to build a computer from the ground-up:

RAM machines

These are the types of computers with a CPU, computer memory, etc., which understand basic instructions in a machine language. The concept evolved from the Turing machine.

Brains

Brains are massively parallel processors made of neurons, wired in intricate patterns, that communicate via electricity and neurotransmitter chemicals.

Programming languages

Such as the lambda calculus, or modern programming languages, are virtual computers built on top of other computers.

Cellular automata

For example, the game of Life can create "gliders" and "loops" and other constructs that transmit information; this paradigm can be applied to DNA computing, chemical computing, etc.

Groups and committees

The linking of multiple computers (brains) is itself a computer

Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain Turing-complete is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.

Limited-function computers

Conversely, a computer which is limited in function (one that is not "Turing-complete") cannot simulate arbitrary things. For example, simple four-function calculators cannot simulate a real computer without human intervention. As a more complicated example, without the ability to program a gaming console, it can never accomplish what a programmable calculator from the 1990s could (given enough time); the system as a whole is not Turing-complete, even though it contains a Turing-complete component (the microprocessor). Living organisms (the body, not the brain) are also limited-function computers designed to make copies of themselves; they cannot be reprogrammed without genetic engineering.

Virtual computers

A "computer" is commonly considered to be a physical device. However, one can create a computer program which describes how to run a different computer, i.e. "simulating a computer in a computer". Not only is this a constructive proof of the Church-Turing thesis, but is also extremely common in all modern computers. For example, some programming languages use something called an interpreter, which is a simulated computer built on top of the basic computer; this allows programmers to write code (computer input) in a different language than the one understood by the base computer (the alternative is to use a compiler). Additionally, virtual machines are simulated computers which virtually replicate a physical computer in software, and are very commonly used by IT. Virtual machines are also a common technique used to create emulators, such game console emulators.

Art of Music

Art music (or serious music or erudite music) is an umbrella term used to refer to musical traditions implying advanced structural and theoretical considerations and a written musical tradition. The notion of art music is a frequent and well defined musicological distinction, e.g. referred to by musicologist Philip Tagg as an "axiomatic triangle consisting of 'folk', 'art' and 'popular' musics." He explains that each of these three is distinguishable from the others according to certain criteria. In this regard, it is frequently used as a contrasting term to popular music and traditional or folk music. 

Definition

The term is mostly used to refer to music descending from classical tradition. This is the common definition referred by many musicologists and scholars including Susan McClary, Lawrence Kramer , Theodor Adorno, Deryck Cooke, Joseph Swain, Nicolas Cook, Nicola Dibbens,, Philip Tagg or Gregory Booth and Terry Lee Kuhn. Many of these authors, however, tend to be critical or prudent with respect to certain implications of this classification. Those authors most particularly associated with critical musicology movement and popular music studies like Tagg tend to reject latent social elitism that has sometimes been associated with this classification.

Some other authors interested in music theory may define art music differently. Musician Catherine Schmidt-Jones for example defines art music as "a music which requires significantly more work by the listener to fully appreciate than is typical of popular music." In her view, "[t]his can include the more challenging types of jazz and rock music, as well as Classical."

While often used to refer primarily to Western historical classical music, the term may refer to:

• The classical/art music traditions of several different cultures around the world;
• Modern and contemporary art music, including serialism, electronic art music, experimental (art) music and minimalist music, as well as other forms;
• Some forms of jazz, excluding most forms generally considered to be popular music. Jazz is generally considered as popular music. (Adorno for example refers to jazz as some kind of popular music.) But some more technical forms of jazz have blurred borders between art music and popular music.

While earlier musicological approaches tended to consider art music in an elitist way, stating art musics superiority over other forms of music (for example Adorno), many modern musicologists (most particularly ethnomusicologists) dispute the notion of superiority. In a recent international musicology colloquium dedicated to music and globalization, some ethnomusicologists such as Jean During insisted that no matter the technicity and difficulty of music, every musical tradition has the same dignity and no one can claim any superiority over another.

Furthermore, many art music composers have made reference to popular music including Darius Milhaud, Josquin des Prez, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, George Gershwin, Manuel M. Ponce, Leonard Bernstein, Vincent D’Indy, while others like Béla Bartók, Zoltan Kodaly, Steve Reich, John Cage, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, Brahms, Dvorak, Lou Harrison, Olivier Messiaen, François-Bernard Mâche have drawn influence from regional or extra-European traditional music.

Moreover, in some cases the distinction between popular and art music has been blurred, particularly in the late 20th century. For example, minimalist music and postmodern music in particular got closer to popular music and rejected older cleavages. Conversely, some popular experimental musicians developed a special interest in the minimalist and postmodern approach, thereby incorporating certain aspects of art music into popular music. Therefore, some may consider certain forms of popular-based music such as art rock art music. However, in the strict, original sense these forms of music cannot really be regarded as pure erudite music because they do not match most of the criteria. Besides, many fans of experimental popular music (such as art rock and avant-garde metal) tend to mistake the sense of the term art music. In their conception, "art music" is used to refer to authentic and creative music as opposed to commercial music. Hence, use of the term "art music" sometimes leads to misunderstandings.

Characteristics

The term primarily refers to classical traditions (including contemporary as well as historical classical music forms) which focus on formal styles, invite technical and detailed deconstruction and criticism, and demand focused attention from the listener. In strict western practice, art music is considered primarily a written musical tradition, preserved in some form of music notation, as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or in recordings (like popular and traditional music). Historically, most western art music has been written down using the standard forms of music notation that evolved in Europe beginning prior to the Renaissance period and reaching its maturity in the Romantic period. The identity of a "work" or "piece" of art music is usually defined by the notated version, rather than a particular performance of it (as for example with classical music).

However, other cultural classical traditions may refer to oral transmission. For example, Indian classical music is transmitted mainly orally from master to disciple, despite its typically greater sophistication of rhythmic and melodic frameworks than western classical music. Reliance on notation alone is believed insufficient to capture the exact pitches or finely nuanced ornaments demanded of classical Indian musicians, who typically act as composers as well as performers of preserved compositions. Treatises on the structural and theoretical considerations underlying Indian classical music have been available for millennia, notably the Natyashastra of Bharata, dated to between 200 BC and 200 AD. Some Western classical composers, notably Messiaen, relied on Indian rhythmic frameworks for their rhythmically more sophisticated compositions.

In some western modern or experimental forms, the written notation of art music may depart from standard musical notation and use a variety of new types of notation to facilitate the exploratory nature of these new forms of music. The inclusion of the new forms within the definition of "art music" is based upon the intention of the composer for the experience created by the music and upon the method of the composer in communicating the substance of the music to the performer. In other words, while the notation may not be formal or traditional, there remains an element of formality or intellectual discipline to the construction and communication of the content of the work.

About Me

People may have many different types of hobbies during their lifetimes. When we are very young most of our time is spent playing with dolls or toy trucks. We also may enjoy playing in a sandbox or building with wooden blocks. When we get older we start to pursue our first hobbies. Some kids go out for a sport like football or figure skating. These new interests can be quite time-consuming and most children put a lot of energy into them. Some other children might get interested in less active activities like reading, painting, or stamp collecting. While some others might enjoy playing an instrument like the piano or the flute.

As we get older, our hobbies might change or they might not. Some people who collected stamps as a child might still be collecting stamps when they are 80. Other people might change their interests every year depending on fashion. Some people are lucky that they have found professions that are similar to their hobbies, like the weekend gardener who works as a landscaper or the kid who loves computers and becomes a programmer.

Some of the most popular hobbies include watching TV or videos, reading books, magazines and newspapers, playing a musical instrument, singing in a choir or listening to music. Lots of people like travelling as a hobby. Many people like to join sports clubs where they practice gymnastics, basketball, volleyball, swimming, handball or judo. The main goal of a hobby is to give yourself an enjoyable break from your everyday work or school. A hobby is something you should do only for yourself.

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Hitobito wa, jibun no isshō no ma no shumi no samazamana shurui ga aru kamo shiremasen. Ware ware wa hijō ni wakai toki watashi-tachi no jikan no hotondo wa ningyō ya omocha no torakku de asonde tsuiyasa rete iru. Mata, sandobokkusu ya tatemono no ki no burokku de asonde tanoshimu koto ga dekimasu. Wareware wa wareware no saisho no shumi o tsuikyū suru tame ni kaishi-nen o toru baai. Ichibu no kodomo-tachi wa, sakkā ya figyuasukēto no yōna supōtsu ni dekakeru. Korera no atarashii kanshin wa hijō ni jikan ga kakaru koto ga hotondo no kodomo-tachi wa sorera ni ōku no enerugī o oku. Ikutsu ka no hoka no kodomo-tachi wa, dokusho, kaiga no yō ni sorehodo akutibuna katsudō ni kyōmi o motsu tari, kitte shūshū. Ikutsu ka no hoka no piano ya furūto nado no gakki o ensō o tanoshimu koto ga arimasuga. Watashi-tachi wa toshi o toru nitsurete, watashi-tachi no shumi wa henkō shi tari, karera ga inai kanō-sei ga arimasu. Karera wa 80-ji no ko toshite sutanpu o atsumete ichibu no hitobito wa, mada sutanpu o atsumete iru kanō-sei ga arimasu. Ta no hito wa, fasshon ni ōjite, maitoshi jibun-tachi no rieki o henkō suru koto ga arimasu. Ichibu no hitobito wa, karera ga niwashi ya konpyūta ga daisukide, purogurama ni naru kodomo toshite hataraite shūmatsu niwashi no yō ni, jibun no shumi ni nite imasuga mitsukarimashita shokugyō o motte iru koto o rakkīdesu. Mottomo ninki no aru shumi no naka ni wa, terebi ya bideo o mite iru shoseki, zasshi ya shinbun o yonde, gakki o ensō, seika-tai de uta~tsu tari, ongaku o kiite imasu. Shumi toshite ryokō no yōna hitobito ga takusan. Ōku no hitobito wa doko ni renshū taisō, basukettobōru, barēbōru, suiei, handobōru ya juudoo no supōtsukurabu ni sanka shitai. Shumi no omona mokuteki wa, jibun jishin ni anata no mainichi no shigoto ya gakkō kara no tanoshii kyuuka o ataeru kotodesu. Shumi wa anata jishin no tame dake o jikkō suru hitsuyō ga arimasu mono desu.

Merapi Volcano

Merapi volcano is one of the world's most active and dangerous volcanoes. It contains an active lava dome which regularly produces pyroclastic flows. Eruptions occur at intervals of 1-5 years and are of low gas pressure. Since magma is poor in gas, eruptions are usually less than VEI 3 in size.

Merapi is one of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia and has produced more pyroclastic flows than any other volcano in the world. It has been active for 10,000 years.

Most eruptions of Merapi involve a collapse of the lava dome creating pyroclastic flows which travel 6 to 7 km from the summit. Some awan panas have traveled as far as 13 km from the summit, such as the deposit generated during the 1969 eruption. Velocity of pyroclastic flows can reach up to 110 km/hour. A slow up flow of andesitic magma leads to an extrusion of viscous magma, which accumulate and construct a dome in the crater.

Violent Eruptions at Merapi volcano

There is evidence that the current low level of activity may be interrupted by larger explosive eruptions. Eruptions of Merapi volcano during the 7–19th centuries A.D. were more violent than the past hundred years, and produced explosion pyroclastic flows. Widespread pyroclastic flows and surges traveled up to 25 km down the flanks of Merapi.

Scientists predict that the quiet of the 20th century will be broken by a larger
explosive eruption within coming decades. (Scientific report published in 2000).

2010 Eruption

Merapi volcano was raised to level 3 alert (out of a maximum 4) due to inflation and volcanic earthquakes on 21st October 2010. Sand miners were asked to stop all activity, and people advised not to climb the volcano.
Merapi volcano erupted on 26th October 2010 killing 34 people.

2006 Eruptions

Seismic activity began increasing at Merapi volcano in March 2006, and 10,000 residents were prepared for evacuation. On 10th April people were banned from climbing the volcano. On 12th April the Alert Level was raided from 2 to 3. An 8 km exclusion zone was placed around the volcano. On 27th April nearly 2,000 villagers were evacuated from Sidorejo and Tegalmulyo villages around Merapi volcano. On 13th May, the Alert Level was raised to the highest level 4, and about 4,500 people living near the volcano were evacuated. On 15th May pyroclastic flows traveled up to 4 km west. By 16th May, more than 22,000 people had been evacuated. On 8th June, the lava-dome growth rate at Merapi was an estimated 100,000 cubic meters per day, with an estimated volume of 4 million cubic meters. Pyroclastic flows and rockfalls decreased in frequency and intensity after 28th June 2006.

2006 Earthquakes

On 27th May 2006 a magnitude 6.3 earthquake killed about 5,400 people produced in a three-fold increase in activity at Merapi volcano. On 17th July 2006 a magnitude 7.7 earthquake hit 50 km south of Merapi volcano. The earthquake was the result of thrust-faulting on the boundary between the Australian and Sunda tectonic plates. The earthquake produced an 8 m high tsunami which hit the southern coast of Java. This event was classified as a tsunami earthquake, because of the low earthquake magnitude compared to the tsunami size. The earthquake caused 5,750 deaths, 38,560 injuries, and up to 600,000 people displaced in the Bantul-Yogyakarta area.

2001 Eruption

A major eruption began at Merapi volcano on 10th February 2001. A 30-minute-long pyroclastic flow occurred at 0200 hr. At 0330 hr there was a collapse of the 1998 lava dome which ejected ash 5 km above the summit and produced a pyroclastic flows that extended 7 km in the direction of the Sat River.

1998 Eruptions

Activity at Merapi volcano began increasing in July 1998. On 11th July 37 nuées ardentes occurred between midnight and 0500 hr. Between 11-19 July, 128 nuées ardentes occurred, including a strong pyroclastic ash and block flow at 1500 on 19th July.

1994 Eruptions

On 22nd November 1994, a large number of dome-collapse nuees ardentes were generated over a period of several hours at Merapi volcano. The nuees ardentes descended mainly the Boyong valley and the Bedog valley, a tributary of the Krasak-Kecil valley. This was in contrast to the 1984 and 1992 flows which traveled exclusively towards the southwest and west.

1986-87 Eruptions
Lava dome formation at Merapi volcano in 1986-87 was the largest since 1973.

1968 Eruptions

At the end of May 1968 a lava tongue had extended 875 m and was the result of new lava done extrusion after the 1967 collapse. The number of avalanches from the lava tongue were 1432 in June, 1370 July, 329 August, and 12 in September. Renewed activity began at Merapi volcano in October 1968 with an increasing number of lava avalanches.

1967 Eruptions

A lava dome extruded in April 1967 at the upper Batang River on the SW slope of Merapi volcano. The dome collapsed in October 1967.

1822 Lahar

A hot lahar at Merapi volcano on 28th December 1822 destroyed 4 villages with 100 casualties.

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